In the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, particularly in Sumer and Babylon, we find some of the earliest references to witchcraft. These societies believed in a pantheon of gods and spirits, and magic played a significant role in their religious and everyday lives. Texts such as the Enuma Elish and the Epic of Gilgamesh mention individuals with supernatural abilities, often described as "sorcerers" or "enchanters." These figures were believed to possess knowledge of incantations and rituals that could manipulate natural forces or influence the actions of gods and spirits. The practice of witchcraft in Mesopotamia was closely intertwined with religious rites, with rituals performed to ensure fertility, protection, or to ward off malevolent spirits. However, while some practitioners were revered for their magical abilities, others were feared as potential threats to societal order.

In ancient Egypt too, magic and sorcery were deeply ingrained in religious practices and beliefs. The Egyptian civilization held a profound reverence for the supernatural, believing in the existence of an afterlife and the ability of magic to influence both the living and the dead. Individuals known as "hekau" were revered for their ability to wield magical spells and incantations for healing, protection, and divination. Magical texts, such as the Book of the Dead, contained spells and rituals intended to guide the deceased through the underworld and ensure their eternal well-being. Moreover, Egyptian mythology is replete with stories of gods and goddesses performing magical feats, further emphasizing the importance of magic in Egyptian society. While magic was generally viewed as a positive force, capable of bringing blessings and protection, there was also a recognition of its darker aspects, with spells used for cursing enemies or thwarting malevolent spirits.

And how can we overlook ancient Greece, in modern times, who doesn't know of Odysseus or Hercules, in this times the concept of witchcraft was intertwined with mythology and folklore, with legendary figures such as Circe and Medea embodying the archetype of the witch. These women were depicted as possessing extraordinary powers, including the ability to brew potions, cast spells, and shape-shift. In Greek mythology, magic often served as a means of achieving personal goals or exacting revenge, with witches depicted as both cunning and dangerous. However, not all magical practitioners were portrayed negatively; some were revered as oracles or healers, capable of communing with the divine or curing ailments through herbal remedies and incantations. Nevertheless, the portrayal of witches in Greek literature reflects a mixture of fear and fascination with the supernatural, highlighting the ambiguity surrounding the practice of magic in ancient Greek society.

- Sorcière, de Circé aux sorcières de Salem by Alix Paré 

-L'Illiade and L'Odyssée by Homère

During the Middle Ages, particularly in the 14th and 15th centuries, Europe witnessed a dramatic rise in witch hunts, marking a dark chapter in the history of witchcraft. These hunts were fueled by a complex interplay of socio-political and religious factors, contributing to widespread paranoia and hysteria surrounding the perceived threat of witchcraft.

The rise of witch hunts can be attributed to various socio-political and religious factors. Socio-politically, the Middle Ages were characterized by feudalism, where power was concentrated in the hands of monarchs, nobles, and the Church. As feudal societies grappled with economic instability, population growth, and territorial disputes, there was a pervasive sense of fear and uncertainty. Witch hunts provided a convenient scapegoat for societal ills, allowing authorities to deflect blame onto marginalized groups, particularly women, the poor, and minorities.

Religiously, the medieval Church played a central role in propagating fears of witchcraft. The Church's teachings reinforced the belief in the existence of supernatural forces, including demons and malevolent spirits. Influential texts like the Malleus Maleficarum ("The Hammer of Witches"), written by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, provided theological justification for the persecution of witches, framing them as heretics in league with the devil. Moreover, the Inquisition, established by the Church to combat heresy, actively pursued individuals accused of witchcraft, employing torture and coercion to extract confessions.

The stereotypes and representations of witches during this period were deeply ingrained in the collective imagination. Witches were often depicted as elderly women, solitary and marginalized figures who consorted with demons and engaged in maleficium, or harmful magic. These stereotypes were reinforced by popular beliefs and folklore, such as the notion of witches gathering at sabbats to engage in orgiastic rituals and blasphemy. Additionally, the image of the witch as a temptress or seductress, capable of ensnaring unsuspecting souls, further demonized women's sexuality and autonomy.

Overall, the witch hunts of the Middle Ages exemplify the intersection of power, fear, and prejudice, resulting in the systematic persecution and execution of thousands of individuals accused of witchcraft. This period serves as a stark reminder of the dangers of mass hysteria and the exploitation of marginalized communities for political and religious ends

- Malleus Maleficarum by Henri Institoris and Jacques Sprenger

In the wake of the Renaissance, the perception of witches underwent significant evolution, reflecting changing cultural, intellectual, and social currents. This period witnessed a shift away from the widespread fear and persecution of witches towards more nuanced and complex representations.

The Renaissance marked a resurgence of interest in classical knowledge and humanistic ideals, fostering a climate of intellectual curiosity and skepticism. As scholars revisited ancient texts and questioned traditional beliefs, attitudes towards witchcraft began to change. Instead of viewing witches solely as malevolent agents of Satan, some intellectuals began to interpret witchcraft as a manifestation of natural phenomena or as a reflection of societal anxieties.

Art, literature, and popular culture played a crucial role in shaping the representation of witches during this period. Artists such as Albrecht Dürer and Francisco Goya depicted witches in their works, often portraying them as mysterious and alluring figures rather than as grotesque hags. Similarly, writers like William Shakespeare and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe explored themes of magic and witchcraft in their plays and novels, presenting witches as complex characters with their own motivations and desires.

Intellectual and social movements also played a significant role in challenging traditional beliefs about witches. The Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, science, and individual liberty, led to increased skepticism towards superstition and supernatural beliefs. Philosophers such as Voltaire and Denis Diderot criticized the persecution of witches as irrational and unjust, advocating for tolerance and rational inquiry.

Furthermore, the rise of feminist movements in the 19th and 20th centuries prompted a reevaluation of the witch as a symbol of female empowerment and resistance. Feminist scholars like Margaret Murray argued that accusations of witchcraft were often used to suppress women who challenged traditional gender roles or asserted their independence.

Overall, the Modern Era witnessed a gradual shift in the perception of witches, moving away from fear and superstition towards a more nuanced understanding of witchcraft as a complex cultural phenomenon. While the legacy of witch hunts and persecution persisted, the portrayal of witches in art, literature, and intellectual discourse reflected changing attitudes towards gender, power, and belief.

In modern society, witches continue to captivate the collective imagination, albeit in vastly different ways from previous eras. With the advent of mass media, literature, and popular culture, contemporary representations of witches have evolved to reflect the concerns, ideals, and complexities of our time.

The portrayal of witches in the media, literature, and popular culture has undergone significant transformation in recent decades. While traditional stereotypes persist in some contexts, there has been a notable diversification and reimagining of the witch archetype. In television shows like "Charmed" and "American Horror Story: Coven," witches are depicted as powerful, multidimensional characters grappling with issues of identity, agency, and morality. Similarly, in literature, authors like Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman have created rich, nuanced portrayals of witches that challenge conventional notions of good and evil.

Feminist reinterpretations and movements of reappropriation have played a pivotal role in reshaping the image of the witch in contemporary culture. Drawing on the legacy of feminist witchcraft and the reclaiming of the term "witch" as a symbol of empowerment, groups like W.I.T.C.H. (Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell) have used witch imagery to protest against patriarchy, capitalism, and other forms of oppression. Moreover, feminist scholars and activists have explored the historical connections between witch hunts and the persecution of women, highlighting the ways in which accusations of witchcraft have been used to control and silence marginalized communities.

Contemporary perceptions of witches reflect the broader concerns and ideals of our time, including issues of gender, power, and social justice. The resurgence of interest in witchcraft and the occult can be seen as a response to the growing disillusionment with mainstream institutions and the search for alternative forms of spirituality and community. Moreover, the portrayal of witches as symbols of resistance and resilience resonates with contemporary movements for gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and environmental activism. By embracing the complexity and ambiguity of the witch archetype, contemporary culture offers a space for exploring and challenging dominant narratives about gender, power, and identity.

- La puissance Invaincue des femmes by Mona Chollet